A look at the intriguing History of Snowboarding
 by: Keith Kingston

It has taken almost forty years for snowboarding to be recognized as a major sport that is followed and participated in by hundreds of thousands of people worldwide. Humanity’s love affair with snow has been documented throughout the ages, starting with cave dwellers who were smart enough to figure out that snow had its advantages, such as serving as insulation to hold in the warmth in their homes and preserving the day’s kill.

To say who actually invented the sport of snowboarding would be impossible because people have always loved to slide down a snow-covered hill. Soaring through the snow on some kind of seat or board is nothing new. The ways to enjoy the snow are numerous, and people have devised ways to turn garbage can lids and cardboard into “snow boards” to enjoy an afternoon frolic outdoors. The various ways to glide through snow have become more sophisticated and have evolved into using polished boards or skis in much the same manner as a surfboarder would ride a wave.

There have been many attempts at developing a modern snowboard. In 1965, the “Snurfer” (a word play on ‘snow’ and ‘surfer’) was developed as a child’s toy. Two skis were bound together and a rope was placed at the front end to afford control and stability. Over 500,000 “Snurfers” were sold in 1966 but they were never seen as more than a child's plaything even though organized competitions began to take place. The year 1969 brought a slightly more sophisticated snowboard based on the principles of skiing combined with surfboard styling.

The “Flying Yellow Banana” was developed in 1977. This was nothing more than a plastic shell covered with a top surface like that of a skateboard, but at the time it was considered a major advance in the little known sport of snowboarding. The first national snowboard race was held in the area outside Woodstock and was known as “The Suicide Six.” The race consisted of a steep downhill run called The Face in which the main goal was probably mere survival.

Snowboarding continued to increase in popularity over the next several years. In 1985 the first magazine dedicated specifically to snowboarding hit the news stands with huge success and furthered the popularity of this exciting sport. Hoards of fans began to organize regional events and pretty soon snowboarding events were held in all parts of the world. In the year 1994 snowboarding was finally declared an Olympic event, much to the delight of fans. The not-so-new sport of snowboarding was finally recognized and meant a huge victory for serious snowboarders across the globe.

A collection of snowboarding tricks and stunts was released on video in 1996. Filmed in Alaska, the breathtaking beauty and captivating snowboarding techniques featured in the video exposed snowboarding to a new generation, and by 1998 snowboarding constituted almost 50% of all winter activity. Today, nearly all ski resorts accept snowboarders. There are still a few holding on to the past but this is unlikely to continue as the number of snowboarders continually increases.

From the first crudely built snowboards to the advanced and specialized models available today, snowboarders have carried a “bad boy” image. This rebel reputation is still common today in spite of the fact that snowboarding appeals to men, women, and children of all nationalities and social groups. At most major ski resorts you can find snowboarding gear, information, and lessons. Olympic and world wide snowboarding events are among the most popular of winter sports and the competition to be the best is fierce.

Retailers nation wide and around the world carry many types of snowboards, and the choice in specially made snowboarding gear is immense. Snowboarders have participated in the X Games and even charity events such as Boarding for Breast Cancer. From its early meager beginnings snowboarding has progressed into a fully recognized sport, and large numbers of people are turning to snowboarding for adventure, fun, and professional recognition.

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Avalanche Awareness and Avalanche Survival and Rescue



Avalanches are a very real danger for all those that visit snowy mountainous areas. Avalanches claim hundreds of lives worldwide every year and leave thousands wounded. 95% of people who are caught in avalanches are caught by a slide that was triggered by themselves or a member of their party. So many of these accidents could have been avoided if those involved had a higher degree of Avalanche Awareness. This section will provide you with some basics about Avalanche Awareness and Avalanche Survival and Rescue that you should know before head up the mountain.

• Avalanche Dangers
• Types of Avalanches
• What causes Avalanches?
• The Avalanche Checklist
• Avalanche Rescue and Safety Equipment
• Avalanche Rescue

 Avalanche Dangers

Thirty percent of people buried completely by avalanches are killed by trauma. Avalanches can motor. While a wet snow avalanche might slurb down a low angle slope at 5 mph or less, a dry powder cloud avalanche can rip along at 120 mph, creating an air blast with the force of a large explosive. If you are caught in this mess you can be bounced off rocks and trees, carried over tall cliffs and even twisted by the leverage of your Skis, Ski Poles or Snowboard.

If you survive the ride and are buried completely, suffocation becomes your big problem. Avalanche debris isn't light and fluffy, even if it started out that way. The kinetic energy of the moving snow creates heat from friction that causes the snow to set up like concrete the instant it stops moving. The weight of the snow coming in behind compresses the snow encasing you, causing it to squeeze tight, forcing the air out of your lungs. You are frozen in place...forget about digging yourself out.

If your friends are well equipped and on the ball they will dig you out. If they get to you within 15 minutes, you have a 90% chance of surviving . After 30 minutes, you're down to a 50% chance and the odds decrease rapidly from there. Due to the length of time required to dig through frozen avalanche debris, if you are more than 6 feet down you will probably not survive.

Types of Avalanches

In short there are a couple of types of avalanches:

• Loose Snow Avalanches
  Generally occurs at the surface in new Snow or wet spring snow. This type of avalanche often begins at a point and spreads out as it goes. They seldom entrain enough snow to bury a person deeply.
• Ice fall avalanches
  Generally occur when a glacier encounters a steep drop. Chunks of ice "calf" off as the glacier slowly flows downhill under the force of gravity. Ice fall avalanches are unrelated to temperature, time of day or any other factors, despite conventional wisdom to the contrary. The best way to avoid these avalanches is to not travel beneath ice cliffs and through ice falls, or if necessary, roll the dice and travel through quickly.
• Cornice fall avalanches
  Generally occur when cornices break loose from the lee side of ridges. Cornices look like frozen ocean waves stretched along mountain ridges. They form their characteristic "eaves" of cantilevered snow when prevailing winds remove snow from slopes on one side of a ridge and deposit it on the other side of the ridge. The snow that forms cornices is very dense and hard, yet can be extremely fragile. It is often difficult to determine from the ridge top where the ground ends and the overhanging cornice is not supported. This type of avalanche is easily avoided by staying back from the peak of ridges
• Slab avalanches
  Generally occur when a packed slab of snow cracks loose. The slab is difficult to see and avoid and will often allow a person to travel well out onto it before failing and dropping. Slab avalanches are most dangerous and cause the most serious injuries and deaths.

What causes Avalanches?

There are typically three factors that cause avalanches:

• Snowpack
  The snow cover on the ground is not an amorphous, 2-dimensional white blanket. If you look carefully at a cross-section, you will see layers within the snowpack that represent a history of the weather events that have produced or influenced the snow. Some of these layers are strong, some are weak. The bonds between layers can also be strong or weak. Slab avalanches occur when a weakness fails, allowing the overlying snow to slide downhill as a unit.
• Terrain
  Snow is a granular substance. The angle of repose--or the steepest angle a granular substance can maintain without collapsing under the pull of gravity is 38°. This is the bulls-eye angle for avalanches, too.
  Avalanches can start on slopes in the range of about 25-55°. Most avalanches start on slopes of about about 35-45°, which is quite steep. On lower angled slopes, the snow can only start moving if the slope is extremely heavily loaded. On steeper slopes, snow sluffs off continuously, rather than forming dangerous slabs.
  If the slope you are playing on isn't steep enough to be an avalanche starting zone that doesn't mean you won't get hit by an avalanche that started above you and is just passing through. In fact, in a shallow snow pack, it is possible to trigger avalanches from apparently safe terrain far away from the starting zone.
  In the spring, the snow pack carries free water around the snow grains. Therefore, in a wet snow slide, the avalanche will behave more like water and can be expected to release and run over much lower angle slopes.
  The type and density of slope vegetation can tell you a lot about the frequency of avalanche activity on a given slope. Damaged or "flagged" trees indicate previous avalanche activity.
• Weather
  In any climate, weather--past present and future--plays a huge role in the evolution of snow on the ground. The thing to remember is that snow hates rapid change: the snowpack can absorb gradual changes but can't adjust to abrupt ones. Beware of such rapid temperature changes in the days before and during your trip.
  

The Avalanche Checklist

The interrelationship of four critical variables -- terrain, weather, snowpack, and man -- determines whether or not a potential avalanche hazard exists. Although these important variables are frequently changing, these changes are often detectable. Not only can critical information be observed, it can be measured, tested, evaluated, and acted upon. The bottom line is that our route selection and hazard evaluation decisions are only as good as the data we seek -- the primary causes of avalanche accidents are attitude and ignorance. Our attitude "filters" the data and warps it to our needs or desires. Our ignorance prevents us from seeking the answers before hand.

Using the following checklist may save your life. Follow these simple steps: 1) Seek out critical data; 2) evaluate the potential level of hazard (red, green, yellow); 3) add a level of caution for the "unknown"; and 4) continually re-evaluate your situation without letting your attitude persuade you away from the facts.

*HAZARD LEVEL SYMBOLS: Think of data as being either red, green, or yellow lights. G = Green light (go, OK), Y = Yellow light (caution, potentially dangerous), R = Red (Stop/Dangerous).

Avalanche Rescue and Safety Equipment

This is an overview of the different kinds of Avalance Rescue & Safety Equipment.

Avalanche Rescue

When you witness an Avalanche you should try to help those that have been victimized by it. Follow the followin steps:

• Don't bring more victims to the accident
  The first rule of Search & Rescue: make sure that the area is safe. Make sure to check the regios for additional avalanche and other dangers that may befall you or members of your team. If it is not safe, it may be a very hard decision, but do not go in. Adding victims to the disaster will not help anyone.
  Once you've determined that it is reasonable to attempt a rescue, post an avalanche guard who can alert everyone else if they spot impending danger. Agree upon a signal in advance (a shout, whistle, etc.) and an escape route for the party--perhaps dense trees on the left flank of the slide path.
  Remember, time is critical! Don't spend time arguing over details. A rescue is best handled as a paramilitary operation--someone needs to be in charge. Often it will be the most experienced person in the group but regardless, this is no time for committee discussions.
  
• Mark Critical Information
  Where was the last seen area?
  Identifying this point could save you a lot of searching on it's uphill side and on either side. The victim will be buried somewhere within a cone that flows from this point down the fall line.
  
  Where was the person's entry point into the slide area?
  This point, combined with the last seen area and any surface clues, can help to determine a line-of-flow and a high probability search area.
  
  Was there a witness?
  Maybe you are helping out another touring party and didn't see the accident yourself. Hold onto the eyewitness! They can save you time and give you critical information like how many people you're looking for. If you have a big group, assign someone to keep track of this person.
  
  Are there any surface clues?
  The position of equipment on the slide path can help to determine the line-of-flow of the victim and his likely burial location. These clues might also actually be the victim.
  
  At this point, it is also a good idea to quickly establish an entry and exit point and a "cache" area to leave any unneeded gear. Anything that is on the slide area is a clue--tracks in and out, equipment and clothing, piles of avalanche debris, etc. The rescuers should make every attempt not to confuse the scene. This extends to scents, as well. If the rescue goes badly, an avalanche dog may be brought in.
  
• Beacon Search
  No more than a few seconds should have expired to get you to this point. Everyone should now switch their beacons to "receive" and a beacon search should begin.
  
  If you do not know how to use a Beacon, read the following:
  Information: Using an Avalanche Beacon >>>
  Practice: Virtual Beacon Practice
  
  If the path is narrow and the searchers are skilled, one or two people can conduct a quick and thorough search of the entire path while the others get their beacons and shovels out. It is a good idea to limit your searchers if you aren't sure if the victim is even wearing a beacon. If he isn't, you'll need people high on the path to begin probing quickly. If they're all at the bottom, you'll waste time waiting for them to hike back up again.
  Once you've picked up a signal, send more searchers and diggers to help. Probe for the victim, too--you don't want to dig right by him! If there is more than one buried victim the search should continue with as many rescuers as can be spared from the first recovery.
  Clear the victim's head first. You can begin rescue-breathing and CPR while others finish excavating. People who have been buried in an avalanche get very cold and very beaten up--treat for hypothermia and traumatic injury.
  
• Probing
  If the victim was not wearing a beacon, prepare yourself for a miserable, cold, long and desperate exercise. It's called "probing". The basic idea is that you poke long rods into the snow, hoping to strike the victim so that you can then dig him out--don't worry, if he lives to suffer a few dents and bruises he'll thank you.
  Examine and quickly probe surface clues. If you find a glove, pull it out--it may have a hand attached to it;
  Probe high-probability catchment areas: the uphill side of trees in the slide path, the outside of bends in the path, low angle areas of the path that have piles of avalanche debris in them, etc.
  Establish a line-of-flow using surface clues, then set up a probeline at the bottom of this line at the toe of the debris.
  
• Course & Fine Probing
  The purpose of a probe line is to cover the avalanche debris with a grid of regularly spaced holes. If you are precise in your coarse-probing, you have a 70% chance of striking a buried victim. If you are not careful and exact, the odds are much lower.
  To conduct a coarse-probe line, space the probers out at 75 cm intervals (hands on hips, elbow to elbow). Someone needs to stand in front to give commands and watch the straightness and spacing of the line. Everyone should probe just ahead and between their toes and should probe and move on command, only. Some tips:
• Work uphill. Probelines headed downhill are hard to keep straight
• If someone gets a strike, they should yell it out, then leave the probe in place. Send a shoveler to dig for whatever was hit. Give the prober a new probe so the line can keep moving (false strikes are not uncommon);
• A regular ski pole with the basket removed works better than nothing
• At this point, you're still looking for a live person, so move quickly but precisely!
• Some probes are really long--just worry about the top 6 feet , for now.
• Mark the probed areas;
• If you have more than 10 probers, you may want to break the group into two probelines working different areas--big lines are hard to control
• Use a guidon cord to keep the line neat, if you have one
• If you probe all the debris and don't find anything, go back over it again--keep it up until you are sure you're looking for a dead body (1.5-2 hrs), then you can send someone for help and begin a fine-probe search.

If regular probing fails you will have to use fine probing. Fine probing is 95% accurate, but very time-consuming--it's for finding bodies, not living victims. Do everything the same, but have the line step forward one third as far and probe in front of both toes as well as in between.

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Backcountry Essentials

Do you know what you're going to need the next time you venture into the backcountry? Chris Hansen goes over the items that you absolutely must have before you duck out.

As with anything that eventually achieves main-stream status, there is almost always a counter-revolution trying to take it back to its roots. Such is the case with snowboarding, and those roots originally took hold in the back country. Whether it's the eternal search for fresh snow, skyrocketing lift-ticket prices or the main-stream's desire for a hip, new venue, back country snowboarding is quickly becoming all the rage.

Getting into the backcountry can be as simple as hiking out of bounds for some untracked powder or as involved as a multi-day tour, but most do it one day at a time. Assuming you have the proper equipment for snowboarding at the area, there are only a few essential items a snowboarder must acquire for the backcountry.

Your first step into the backcountry should be superseded by another life-saving step: take an avalanche course. It will get you ready for the back country, introducing you to aspects of the outdoors and snow characteristics you may not have considered before. A good course will familiarize you with the proper equipment and how to use it. It may also introduce you to some prospective backcountry partners.

The clothing you wear is the first key to comfort and survival in the back country. Some fashion-oriented snowboard clothing just won't cut it in less-than-desirable conditions. Dress in layers and use clothing that insulates well and dries quickly. Loosely translated: No Cotton! The simplest effective combination is usually polypropylene underwear and an insulating layer of pile covered with a waterproof/breathable shell.

The item that will take most effort to buy is the backpack. There are many excellent packs on the market within a broad price range. The optimum pack should carry your board secure and stable, allow enough room (but not too much room) for essential items, and fit and carry comfortably enough to use all day. Research them carefully and pick the right pack for you, because if carrying your board and all your stuff is a painful event, you probably won't enjoy your backcountry experience to the fullest.

Now that you have a pack, what to carry inside? On any trip into the back country the common list of ten essentials is a good place to start. According to the fifth edition of Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills by The Mountaineers, they are as follows:

• Map
• Compass
• Flashlight/headlamp w/ spare bulbs and batteries
• Extra Food
• Extra clothing
• Sunglasses
• First-aid supplies
• Pocket-knife
• Matches in waterproof container
• Fire starter

Although you probably won't need all of these items on every trip, you'll be glad you had them in a time of need. Three other items they mention but do not include as essential (though you may use them more than the essentials)are extra water and water bottles, sunscreen and a small repair kit. There pair kit can be as simple as a screwdriver, extra binding hardware and some duct tape.

Every turn in the backcountry is probably equal to several hundred steps you took to get up the hill. But how to travel? With the board on your back, you'll have to walk up the hill in your boots or using snowshoes. The boots I'm sure you have, but the snowshoes you'll have to buy. Passable shoes are available for as little as $40. A good pair will cost anywhere from $100to $200 or more.

But wait, there is another option. There are two backcountry-specific boards on the market that split lengthwise down the middle so you can use them like mountaineering skis and skin up the hill instead of shoeing. The Nitro Tour Board and the Voile Split Decision offer the convenience of skinning up and the joy of snowboarding down. If you have ever compared snowshoeing to skinning, it's an option you might consider.

Either way you go, you're going to need poles. They will help you conserve energy and give you better balance on uneven or steep terrain. Adjustables are a must - go with a three-piece for compact ability.

A convenient option on many adjustable poles is a probe conversion. You will (hopefully never) need it for finding avalanche victims and testing snow layers. Convertible probe-poles save weight, but a collapsible snow probe is the quickest, most effective tool.

This brings us to the items essential in your defense against avalanches. The most important item you carry into the backcountry is a transceiver. Unlike the battle of standard vs. metric, the U.S. is currently changing over to the stronger, universal frequency of 457 kHz from 2,275 kHz. There are transceivers that handle both, but unless you have friends with the old frequency go with the single, new frequency. But remember, it will only help you if you know how to use it!

You will also need a shovel for digging snow. There are some small Lexan-bladed units available, but a large metal blade will get the job done easier and is worth its weight if you have to dig anyone out of debris.

Having fun in the backcountry is the easy part. Getting there and staying safe take some work. Go with experienced backcountry travelers, glean all the knowledge you can and spare no expense on life-saving tools. Then comeback and tell us about it.

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Cold Nose, Cold Toes

Have you ever been so cold that your skin has turned white in places? If you have then you've experienced frostbite. Frostbite usually affects nose tips, cheeks, ears, fingers and toes. It occurs with exposure to cold, combined with a lack of the blood to circulate heat. Once the area is affected, a lack of oxygen causes damage to the tissues.

There are two types of frostbite superficial and deep. The onset of frostbite is painful, but is often overlooked since the nerves eventually freeze causing numbness. If the part is painfully cold, then suddenly stops hurting when obviously not getting warmer, frostbite should be expected. It's important to watch these areas of exposure in your companions.

Superficial frostbite will usually appear yellow or grayish. The underlying tissue will still be soft and pliable. It can generally be cured by putting the injured area in direct contact with warm skin, such as the armpits or abdomen. Thawing the part will help restore circulation. Putting cold fingers under a neck gaiter at the base of the neck also works well.

Deep frostbite is much more serious. It usually affects the hands or feet, and may eventually lead to the loss of an extremity, if not cared for properly. When tissue is frozen deeper, the underlying tissues become solid and wooden. The tissue will likely turn brown and blister on the surface, as well as underneath. The skin is white and waxy or chalky in appearance. Frostbite, especially blisters should not be treated by rubbing with the hands or snow! Otherwise, damage will be much worse! Rapid rewarming is advised, because it leaves less damage.

The decision to thaw an extremity in the backcountry should be measured by two things. First of all ask, could the injured part become refrozen? If the extremity is thawed then refrozen, it will lead to gangrene. Secondly decide how the patient will be evacuated, because thawed tissue should not be used or walked on.

If a helicopter or sled rescue is possible, then thaw the part as soon as possible to reduce damage from an extended period of oxygen deprivation. Avoid allowing the extremity to slowly thaw out spontaneously during a walk out. If the only way out is by having the patient walk, snowshoe or ski, keep the extremity frozen or wait for help.

If providing first aid in the field with deep frostbite, a shelter will be needed. An igloo or ice cave would be great if already built. Otherwise, a tent would be much faster and easier. If no tent is available, find a natural wind block, use tarps and know how to make an emergency shelter before venturing out.

When treating frostbite, use a stove to heat water to a controlled 102-108 degrees F, which is hot like the temperature of a Jacuzzi, but you can still place a hand in it. Do not use a fire or really hot water, because the tissue will be burnt. If the water becomes cool, remove the injured part then add hot water and stir, until the required temperature is regained. Be sure to test the water. Use a pan that is bigger than the extremity, so skin is not touching the sides. While rewarming give the patient hot drinks to improve morale and apply heat packs to non-frozen areas to improve circulation. The affected area should become a deep red or bluish color, when thawed. Expect the procedure to take about 20-30 minutes.

After thawing use sanitary dressings to soak up heavy drainage from blisters. Although blisters will be very painful to the patient do not break, scrape or rub them, because it will cause more damage and once open they may become infected. Separate digits with soft cotton. Also, elevate the extremity to increase circulation. Continue to wrap in a thick bandage and protect it from further injury.

To prevent frostbite any time of year, wear layers of clothing that wick sweat away from the body, as well as insulate. Then use shells that protect from wind and precipitation. The clothing should not be tight. Choose footwear suitable for the activity and use socks made with synthetics or wool as opposed to cotton. Gloves, mittens and glove liners should be worn throughout the day. A fleece hat and neck gaiter or scarf must be worn to reduce 40 percent of heat loss. Then place a windproof hood over the hat for extreme weather.

By taking these precautions the nose tips, cheeks, ears, fingers and toes will have a much lower chance of being affected. Once frostbite occurs, rapidly rewarm the frozen extremity as soon as possible, by placing against warm skin for mild cases or use hot water for deep frostbite. Plan ahead for evacuation and do not allow the damaged tissues to be used or refrozen. Carry a first aid kit to bandage the affected areas and protect them. Then take the patient into the hospital as soon as possible.

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Contacting Rescue Services - Outdoor Rescue

In emergency situations you should not hesitate to call in medical assistance. Most mountainous areas have local rescue services and helicopter crews on standby and the local tourist and guide organizations will be able to give you details about their phone numbers and emergency radio channels. Make sure to note them down and have your team members know them by heart. Do not rely on having them penned down in your guidebook or map. If such local information is not available at least make sure to know the country's emergency telephone number.

Keeping People Informed

It is essential to notify people around you and even the proper authorities of your plans before you head out. Give them details about your plans and your estimated time of arrival (ETA) at each point along your route and your estimated time of return. If possible contact the outside world at fixed intervals and inform them of your whereabouts. In that case if you fail to report in or do not make your ETA the people who stayed home will be able to call in emergency services with a good knowledge about your possible location.

How to Contact Rescue Services

Reaching the outside worls is essential in an emergency situation. If you took the proper preparations you will have brought a cell phone or radio if no signal is available. Here are some methods on how to contact rescue services and often you will want to combine them to maximize the chances of being noticed:

• Radio: check with local authorities about the emergency channel. For Very High Frequency (VHF) radios it will probably be channel 16. Should the signal be weak and communication is non-understandable you should first try to signal in Morse-Code and then find higher ground where reception is probably better. Do not waste battery of your radio and only try to find contact in intervals.
• Cell Phones: in case of a weak signal dial the the emergency number as this works at a higher singal intensity than normal calls. Try sending text messages as well. If you are unable to get any signal or reply your next move would be to turn your mobile phone on and off in an SOS patterns. If you are lucky this signal will be picked up.
• Flares: flares are a great way of drawing attention. If you have a very limited supply then make sure only to use them if a rescue vehicle is in the vicinity. Hand-held flares become hot and emit smoke and particals so make sure to keep them above your head.
• Mirrors: reflecting the sun rays with a mirror is a good way of drawing attention. If you do not have a mirror then try using any other shiny object like metal cases or glass bottle bottoms. To make your aim more precise hold your mirror or shiny object in one hand and block the object (plain, boat, rescue vehicle) with your other hand and aim the mirror in a way that you can see the flash on your hand. Remove your hand and move the mirror in slow circular motions at your target.
• Light Signals if the sun is shining during the daytime you can use mirror signaling. At night a strong flash light will make a very recognisable signal. U can use your flash light to give the SOS signal. 6 repeated flashes a minute with a minute interval is the internationally recognized Mountain Distress Signal.
• Fires: burning fires arranged in a triangle shape are an internationally recognized distress signal. Fires and Smoke are a good way of drawing attention. If fuel is short then only light your fire if you spot a rescue vehicle. Use wet leaves or plastic for maximum smoke production and light your fires at easily recognisable places like open clearings or elevations. Keep your fires under control to prevent Forest Fires and more trouble
• Obstacle Patterns try to use objects, natural and man-made, to create a big recognisable pattern. Triangles, Crosses or SOS are the most common and recognisable patterns. Use logs, stones or what ever is at your disposal to make these signs.

Passing on the Right Information

When contacting medical assistance make sure to have the following details at your disposal:

• The nature and cause of the incident causing the injuries
• The number of patients and the name, age and medical condition of each patient in order of importance:
• Vital Signs
• Level of Consciousness:
  A : Alert
  V : Responds to Verbal Stimuli (talking/shouting)
  P : Responds to Pain Stimuli (pinching, pin pricks)
  U : Unresponsive
• Description of Injury
• The treatment already applied
• Group Situation:
• number of uninjured people
• medical expertise in the group
• shelter
• water/food and medical supplies
• Location: try to give the location as precise as possible:
• GPS or Map Coordinates
• Distance and direction from landmarks
• Description of landscape or possible special features
• Weather and Terrain conditions/problems
• In case of a helicopter: possible landing zone

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Definition of Snow Types

by Snocountry Mountain Reports

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First Aid - Fractures & Applying Splints

If the victim complains about extreme pain at a certain area you should check for a fracture:

• Ask if the victim heard or felt a bone snap
• Check if the victim is able to move the inflicted body part
• Check for deformities
• Check for swelling
• Check for discoloration of the skin

If bone is sticking out of the skin then you are dealing with a compound fracture. Compound fractures are very serious injuries that may cause serious bleeding.

• Do not apply too much pressure to stop the bleeding
• Cover the wound with a sterile pad or cloth if available
• Do not push the bone back or try to re-allign the fracture. Instead apply a splint to prevent further injury
• Do not move the victim but wait for professional assistance. Keep the victim warm and comfort him/her

Applying a Splint

• Find a rigid straight object that is longer than the bone and joint that you are going to support. You are going to be using this as the splint.
• Cover any broken skin with a sterile cloth. Pad the splint with softer materials such as cloth.
• Tie the splint to the injured limb using tape or rope. Make sure the splint is tight but not so tight that it cuts of blood circulation of the victim. Make sure the splint is applied in a way that prevents the limb from further movement or strain.
• If available, place an icebag over the splinted break area. Do not place it directly on the skin or wound but cover it with cloth.

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First Aid - Frostnip and Frostbite

Frostbite occurs when body parts are exposed to extreme cold for a period of time. Toes, fingers, earlobes, chin, cheeks and nose run the most risk of frostbite as they are often not protected by clothing. When the body is exposed to extreme cold the blood vessels constrict. As the body part starts to loose warmth the fluid within the cells start to freeze and form ice crystals. These crystals casuse the cells to rupture.

The best way to prevent frostbite is simply to stay warm. Make sure to wear proper clothing using layers to stay warm and dry. If you are in a very cold environment check your body for numbness.

Frostbite occurs in a couple of stages:

• Frostnip
  The skin feels stiff and numb and is white in color. Underneath the tissue is still warm and soft. The condition is not that serious, simply warm the body part by rubbing, moving and covering with extra layers of clothing. Frostnip does not require any medical attention. Check for frostnip often as it is the first step to frostbite.
  
• Superficial Frostbite
  After frostnip comes superficial frostbite. The skins is hard and frozen and looks white/blue. The tissue underneath the skin has not been affected yet. Superficial frostbite will cause blistering and medical attention is needed to prevent permanent injury.
  
• Deep Frostbite
  In case of further freezing the tissue underneath the skin will get affected as well. The skin is white/blue and totally frozen and the tissue is hard as well. Deep frostbite needs immediate medical attention. In severe cases deep frostbite can lead to permanent injury, amputation and even death.

Treating Frostbite

• Get the victim away from the cold source as soon as possible and if possible take the victim inside. If possible take the victim to the emergency room as soon as possible.
• Do not start thawing the affected area if there is a chance that the area may refreeze. Thawing and refreezing will cause severe tissue damage
• Immerse the affected area in warm water (40 degrees celcius). If no warm water is available wrap the area in warm blanckets gently. Do not rub the skin with your hands or other materials.
• The affected area will feel numb so make sure that the victim has no control over the heat source. Do not let the victim determine the temperature of the water and do not use direct heat sources such as a fire or heating pad.
• As the body part thaws feeling may come back causing a lot of discomfort to the patient. Make sure blisteres remain untouched.

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First Aid - The Essential Basics

First Aid skills are very important to have in any extreme sports or activity which has an increased chance of injury. You should take the time to read the following sections to assure you have some basic knowledge about what you can and should do if you are confronted with a First Aid situation.

The Basics

There are a couple of ground rules when it comes to first aid and emergency situations.

• Remain Calm and in Control
  Do nothing to add further tension to the situation. The victim and the events will already cause a tense situation do nothing to add to the tension but try to calm it down instead.
  
• DR. ABC
  The letters in DR.ABC tell you the basics of what you should do in a First Aid situation:
  
• D - Danger
  Check the danger and source of the injury inflicted to the victim. Make sure the danger has passed and the surrounding are safe. There is no use of becoming a victim yourself. Assess the situation.
  
• R - Response
  Check the Response of the victim by simply asking them how they are. If they can answer your question then that tells you that the victim is conscious, breathing and that the heart is working. If the victim is unable to response move onto the ABC:
  
• A - Airway
  Make sure that the victim has an open airway. Tilting the head back with the chin facing up will clear an airway.
  
• B - Breathing
  Make sure that the victim is breathing by looking at breathing signs, listening to exhales and feeling air coming out of the mouth or nose.
  
• C - Circulation
  Make sure that the victim has blood circulation. Check for a pulse and visual signs such as complexion and blinking of the eyes.

Send for Professional Help

If you are with multiple people assign one person to call for aid. If you have a mobile phone or other way of reaching the outside world, use it. Explain calmly and clearly the location of the accident and the condition of the victim. For more information read the article on Contacting Rescue Services

After you have performed the Dr. ABC check you can further analyse the situation and act on the injury or condition. In the nextsections we will look at different kinds of injuries and how to treat them.

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Snowboarding - Maintenance

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Snowboarding Safety - Common Snowboarding Injuries and Prevention

Snowboarding is an extreme winter sport with a considerable chance of injuries ranging from innocent little slips to high impact crashes. Beginning Snowboarders are the ones who normally get injured even though they attempt less dangerous maneuvers than advanced Snowboarders. This is because they haven't learned How to Maintain a Stable Stance on the Snowboard yet and are thus more likely to lose balance and fall. In fact, nearly 25% of injuries occur during a Snowboarder's first experience and almost one-half occur during the first season of Snowboarding.

Considering the fact that both of your feet is fixed in non-release Snowboard Bindings to a relatively narrow Snowboard, it is logical that "falling" is the leading cause of injury in Snowboarding. Falls are followed by collisions with stationary objects and other Snowboarders or skiers. The overall injury rate is estimated to be 4 per 1,000 Snowboarding days, similar to that in alpine skiing.

Compared to Skiing, Snowboarding injuries usually involve the upper extremities and the ankle. This is because when Snowboarders lose their balance, they can't "step out" a leg in order to recover, as both feet are firmly attached to the board. The instinctive protective reaction in the event of a Snowboard fall is to outstretch a hand to break the landing, thus placing the upper limb at risk of injury. Nevertheless, serious injuries are rare in Snowboarding and generally occur from collision with trees. Wrist injuries are by far the most common of all Snowboarding injuries, followed by ankle and knee injuries.

In this section we are going to look at some of the dangers and injuries in Snowboarding.

Wrist Injuries

Wrist injuries are by far the most common Snowboarding injuries. Slipping backwards and landing on your hands is a common occurrence especially for those who are just Learning How to Ride. Hard impacts of those slips can cause sprains or even fractures.

Wrist injuries tend to occur when Snowboarders lose their balance, subsequently falls, and instinctively react by outstretching a hand in order to try and break the fall. This mechanism is known as a 'FOOSH' (Fall Onto an Out Stretched Hand) amongst emergency department staff. As a result, the wrist is the single most common site of injury amongst Snowboarders - an area that is rarely injured in Alpine Skiing.

When you slip back, try not to catch your fall with your hands because by doing so, you will be placing all the impact on your wrists. It would be better to teach yourself to fall on your elbows. As you fall backwards, keep your hands in front of you and point your elbows backwards. Your elbows are able to absorb a much harder impact than your wrists. Better yet, try to keep your arms safely tucked in. It is better to roll out of a fall, distributing impact over a greater portion of the body.

Wrist guards are the best method of injury prevention. Using wrist guards are especially important during your first week of learning to Snowboard. Some glove manufacturers make gloves with integrated wrist protection. Wrist guards made for Inline Skating or skateboarding can also work for Snowboarding, and can be worn either under or above your mittens or gloves. You can buy them as separate pieces of gear or integrated into gloves or mittens.

Ankle Injuries

Standard Snowboarding places a lot of pressure on your ankles and calves. Ankle injuries occur mostly from hard sideway impacts such as crashes and are particularly common after jumping when a combination of compression and inversion (the ankle turning in) forces are experienced. This may lead to an ankle sprain or to a more serious condition called "snowboarder's ankle" - a fracture of the lateral process of the talus. Expert riders tend to have more ankle injuries, although the risk is decreasing as better ankle support is added to Snowboarding Boots.

As with skiing, your Snowboard Gear has a significant effect on the type and frequency of certain injuries. Generally, the risk of sustaining an ankle injury as a Snowboarder is related to the kind of Snowboard boots you wear:

• Hard Shell Boots tend to be worn by more experienced boarders and (as with Ski Boots) tend to protect the ankle joint.
• Soft boots are favored by beginners because they allow some degree of ankle movement, which helps the rider to maneuver the board more easily. Unfortunately, soft boots give the Snowboarder about twice the risk of ankle injury compared with hard boots. Any forces transmitted back from the board tend to be absorbed by this joint. This normally happens when the ankle is either compressed or turned in (which can occur after a jump).

Although riders who opt for stiffer lace-up boots or alpine/carving boots are less likely to have ankle injuries, they may be nonetheless more prone to knee injuries. The softer your Snowboard Boots and the looser your binding settings, the greater your risk of injuring a foot or ankle; this often results to a sprain or fracture. Still, the firmer your boots and the tighter the binding settings, the greater your risk of injuring a knee; this often results in ligament damage or ruptures.

If you're a beginner, keep your bindings set relatively loose to spare your knees during falls. As you improve, you can gradually tighten the bindings to improve your control over the board. Keep in mind that Hiking Boots or "moon boots" should never be worn for snowboarding as they considerably increase the risk for serious injury.

Knee Injuries

The knees are the natural springs that absorb most of the shocks during snowboarding. However, compared to skiing, knee injuries are less common and less severe in snowboarding for several reasons. First, a Snowboard only has two edges that can "catch" unexpectedly on snow as opposed to the four edges on skis. Also, Snowboards tend to be shorter than skis; hence the "lever arm" of force produced by any twist is reduced.

Most knee injuries in Snowboarding are caused by extremely hard collisions (such as when you hit a tree) or impacts from unexpected angles or turning motions. To avoid such injuries, make sure you know your limitations. Keep in mind that as your Snowboarding technique improves, your ability to absorb harder impacts will also intensify. Also, while Snowboarding, make sure you keep your knees bent at all times, especially when performing jumps or tricks.

Head Injuries

Crashes with natural objects, such as Hard Snow Surfaces or Ice, rocks and trees, or unnatural objects such as rails and boxes in Snow Parks, can cause serious head injuries. As a result, helmets are an essential component of any Snowboarder's Protective Gear. Regardless of your abilities - whether you'll be performing freestyle tricks or Snowboarding Off Piste or not - it is essential that you wear a Snowboard Helmet at all times. Remember that even a low speed, back slip on the back of your head can already cause serious head injury.

Although there's little doubt about the importance of Wearing a Snowboard Helmet, keep in mind that wearing a Helmet while Snowboarding does not make you invincible. There is no proof that wearing a Helmet will protect you from death or serious injury if, for example, you are going at or above the speed of a normal intermediate boarder (40-60 km/h) and collide with a static object (such as a tree). If you're going to calculate the gravity of the impact, the forces involved with such a collision are way beyond the capacity of all modern helmets. Still, Snowboard Helmets are certainly expected to be of benefit in more minor impacts, glancing blows and other similar mishaps.

When buying a helmet, choose the special Snowboard Helmet. They are stronger at the sides of the helmet where Snowboarding impacts are most likely to occur.

Impact Injuries

Many injuries are caused by the Snowboarder's crash into an obstacle. Another source of injuries however is crashes with other skiers or Snowboarders. Especially on busy slopes, the chances of being hit by other practitioners increase. To avoid such crashes make sure to read and comply with the Skier and Snowboarding Guidelines.

A lot of Snowboarders opt to minimize their chance of injury by protecting their back, hips and torso as well. Using Body Harnesses and Shells are excellent ways of protecting your body.

Snowboarders, especially first-timers, would be wise to avail of some Snowboard Safety Gear. Using wrist and elbow guards can ease the force of falls on the joints of the upper body. Knee pads on the other hand help prevent contusions; a Pad for the Tailbone is also essential since beginning Snowboarders spend a lot of time on their backside.

While both skiing and Snowboarding are done on the snow on a mountain, remember that they are very different in terms of technique. Being a Good Skier does not guarantee that you will be an expert on a Snowboard. In fact, taking a lesson is always the best way to start Snowboarding, to develop proper technique, and even to reduce the risk of injury. Experienced Snowboard instructors can teach beginners how to stay up as well as how to fall - both are essential skills to have for a pleasurable day on the slopes.

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